Kenya

Peace Corps first entered Kenya in 1965 with a program emphasizing secondary education. Though PC/Kenya provided assistance in marine fisheries, participation was largely through individual placements usually in a teaching capacity such as museum assignments and a lectureship at the University of Nairobi. In the period 1972 to 1977, there were four Peace Corps Volunteers (PCVs) teaching and conducting research in various aspects of marine biology and mariculture through the Smithsonian/ Peace Corps Environmental Program.

Research species were the native prawn and spiny lobster. These projects lasted through 1978 and were considered a limited success. At present emphasis in fisheries is directed towards freshwater fish culture extension programs.

Mauritius

During the period 1972 to 1976, PC/Mauritius participated in two projects related to marine fisheries. Through the Department of Fisheries three to five volunteers conducted research in the basic biology of the native oyster and shrimp and manipulation of environmental parameters to enhance their respective growth rates. Recruitment of these volunteers was aided by the Smithsonian Institute. A second project, designated the Rodrigues Project, provided volunteer assistance to the fishermen's cooperatives. Activities included the construction of salting and drying stations. The PC/Mauritius program was terminated at the request of the government of Mauritius in 1976.

Morocco

Between the years 1966 and 1973 PC/Morocco placed 255 volunteers in agricultural and fisheries projects though marine fisheries participation was minor. From 1971 to 1973 two PCV's recruited by the Smithsonian Institution were placed with the Ministry of Agriculture. Their activities were concentrated in the area of basic research on marine fish and shellfish. At the end of FY 1977 a few volunteers continued to be involved in marine biology research though this participation was described a waste of talent due to the over qualifications of the volunteers.

Senegal

PC/Senegal participated in a pilot fishing cooperative during the years 1968 to 1971. Though the project was considered a mild success, the reasons for its success were not documented and the project was not continued.

Sierra Leone

PC/Sierra Leone's involvement in marine fisheries has been minor and less than successful. In 1964 five volunteers arrived to work on Sherbo Island off the mainland. Their objective was to work with outboard motor maintenance and repair. The effort was considered a failure as they discovered that, with the exception of 12 fishermen, all the islanders were rice farmers. The project was ill-conceived and the PCVs either terminated or transferred to new positions. There is some evidence that PC/Sierra Leone again became involved in the sector with the placement of two to three volunteers with the Division of Fisheries during the years 197273. The placements requested were a boat builder and a marine engineer. As in other African countries, by 1977 PC/Sierra Leone began to move into the area of pond fisheries.

Togo was the first country in which Peace Corps attempted to initiate a marine fisheries development program. In the first PC group of volunteers to arrive in Togo in 1962, eight of the 47 were designated for a marine fisheries project and had previous commercial fishing experience. The general objective of their placement was to work with coastal fishermen to improve existing and introduce new fishing techniques and technology. By 1963 only three volunteers remained in the marine fisheries area. This attrition was largely attributed to poor programming and lack of job definition. A similar fate was suffered by the second generation of PCV's, attributed this time to "washouts" and conflicts with the local FAO fisheries expert. As a result of these experiences, PC/Togo began to concentrate its effort in freshwater fisheries in 1966.

Fiji

Between the years 1970-73 Fiji placed 15 volunteers in agriculture and fishery projects. In 1970 four PCVs worked to establish small fishery units before a phase out in 1971. Other areas of involvement were diesel engine maintenance and repair, and fish preparation, storage and marketing strategies. During these years the Smithscnian Institution recruited actively for volunteers in the research area, principally for increasing production of lagoons and estuaries and development of the skipjack tuna resource. These efforts were maintained through FY 1975 before what appeared to be a gradual phasing out occurred. At present there are one or two PCVs working primarily in the area of outboard motor maintenance and repair and boat construction. Though undocumented, it may be that lack of adequate in-country support structures prevented optimal results.

Iran

Peace Corps was invited to Iran in 1962. Projects at that time were in agriculture, education and health. A change in focus first occurred in 1968 upon the recognition by the Iranian government of pollution and living resource depletion in the Caspian Sea. Between 1968 and 1973, 10 volunteers were involved in a project designed to develop and introduce new research methodologies, improve research capabilities and develop and implement management programs for commercial fishing. This program was later broadened in scope and maintained an average of five to eight volunteers working in the Ministry of Agriculture and Department of Environmental Conservation. The PC/Iran program was terminated in 1976. The Smithsonian Institution recruited for several of the Peace Corps positions in Iran.

Malaysia

Volunteers have assisted in fisheries in Malaysia since 1963. Between 1963 and 1973 eight volunteers worked in fisheries research and development though it is not clear if this was solely oriented towards marine fisheries. The most significant accomplishment during this period was a two-volume cost/ earnings survey of Malaysian trawl fisheries by five PCVs serving from 1968 - 1970. This survey was utilized for policy planning by the Malaysian government. It appears an attempt was made for PC/Malaysia involvement with generalist volunteers to participate in the organization of multipurpose fisheries cooperatives. As this effort was in a subsector of agriculture and community development, no specific numbers were obtained. In 1972 Malaysia requested PCVs to assist in the development and expansion of offshore fisheries. PC declined to fill the requests due to the urgent need for other programs and jobs. In 1976 a fisherman as an individual placement served as an instructor aboard a trawler for practical training of students. At present there are two functioning projects. The Sabah fisheries development project placed five PCVs in FY 1977 to assist the Fisheries Department of Sabah in areas of fish culture, lobster fishing and oyster and seaweed culture. Three more volunteers were budgeted for FY 1979. The second project indicates that PC/ Malaysia is moving away from marine fisheries to fish culture. With only one volunteer currently working in the program, nine were projected to be working in FY 1979. Currently PC/Malaysia is surveying the potential for involvement in marine fisheries in Malaysia.

Micronesia

Peace Corps involvement in the Trust Territories resulted in varying degrees of success and failure in regards to marine fisheries development. Between 1966 and 1972, 53 PCVs served in a fish marketing project. This project was joined by a second in 1967 concerned with research on commercial fish species. That program involved 23 PCVs between the year of initiation and 1973. A third program focusing on fishery cooperative assistance was initiated in 1968. This program divided 15 PCVs among the Islands of Truk Ponape and Palau. volunteers Despite these efforts, an evaluation in 1973 described the fisheries program as one of the worst in the Trust Territories largely as a result of lack of support structures working to properly utilize the PCV skills. Since that time the trend has been Currently, for PC/Micronesia to confine itself to special placements in pilot programs. At present PC/ Micronesia is operating with at least three PCVs in the marine fisheries sector.

Philippines

Though the agreement between PC/ Philippines and the Department of d Agriculture and Natural Resources took place in 1971 it was not until 1973 that host agencies requested

volunteers to work in the field of marine fisheries. As all PC/ Philippines fishery programs grew and diversified, activities in the marine sector expanded to include research, mariculture and fisheries extension. In 1975 - 1976 there were 25 PCVs working in fisheries of which six were in fisheries research and seven in fisheries regional planning. As a result of the Philippines Expanded Production Program additional PCVs were requested in FY 1976. In regards to research, the increased number of PCVs were recruited to work with the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), as well as other government and university entities. Highly skilled PCVs were requested including oceanographers and planktologists. Fisheries planners also were requested to work with the Plan and Program Unit of BFAR to be placed throughout the geographical regions of the country. In addition to these, in FY 1972 recruitment in the marine fisheries area expanded to industrial and municipal fisheries (engineers) as well as oceanographers and marine biologists. In 1978 PC/Philippines initiated its first in-country technical training program involing 39 trainees designated to work in fisheries development. Marine research continues to be a component of the fisheries development project though it remains small compared to the freshwater fishery component. The Smithsonian has been involved in at least seven PCV placements in various aspects of marine fisheries. The marine fisheries projects in the Philippines have been judged to be effective largely due to excellent host country support.

Solomon Islands

Since 1977, there have been several small programs in the marine fisheries field in the Solomon Islands. Four volunteers are working in programs to expand local marine products gathering and consumption and to organize fish sales locally for cash income. Volunteers and their counterparts have organized groups of fishermen to provide a continuing supply of fish to a subdistrict center, and have developed a system to deliver ice to villages, store fish, pick up and transport fish to the center and sell them locally from a fish market. In one other program, a volunteer and his counterpart have been working at the country's only turtle sanctuary in tagging and culturing turtles and developing a system for educating local people in conservation and wise use of turtle stocks. Two additional volunteers recruited by the Smithsonian Institution have been working on a UNDP bait fish development scheme to support large scale production of bait fish for the tuna fleets. More volunteers are expected in marine fisheries projects in 1980.

Tonga

The first PC/Tonga involvement in marine fisheries ended in 1972 after 10 months when the volunteers were evacuated because of medical problems. Nevertheless the turtle project with which they were involved was considered a success. From 1972 through 1975 there was only one PCV working in marine fisheries. In FY 1974 their were two PCV's participating in fisheries development/cooperatives The Smithsonian also participated in recruitment efforts for PC/ Tonga placing two PCVs in oyster mariculture and marine extension activities. At present there are two volunteers involved in expanding the fisheries development cooperatives with the assistance of a grant through the Foundation for the Peoples of the South Pacif A third volunteer has successfully launched a Marine Parks Reserve Program and is training two rangers. The fourth volunteer is involved in fisheries research, identifying locally caught fish, assessing the economics of bottom fishing, and developing an industry to smoke popular fish to increase their market potential.

Western Samoa

PC/Western Samoa first entered into marine fisheries development in 1970. Four projects were identified for recruitment: fisheries association development, turtle research, skipjack tuna development and prototype ferroconcrete boat building. Levels of PCV input were projected to increase from four in 1971 to ten by 1974. Though it is not clear what evolved in each individual project, PC involvement continued with enough success to introduce a new village level fisheries program in FY 1975. PCVs trained in marine mechanics worked with local fishermen in the repair and maintenance of outboard engines. These programs continued through FY 1977 with apparent success though since that time it appears efforts have been directed more toward freshwater fisheries.

Belize

Peace Corps involvement in fisheries was never major in Belize, usually occurring as a component of other programs such as food supply or rural development. With the exception of the involvement of two volunteers in 1962/63 with a previously established lobster cooperative, no other direct Peace Corps involvement in fisheries occurred during the 1960's. A second period of activity occurred in the early 1970's with individual placements in the agricultural omnibus program as it related to fishing cooperatives. In addition, PCVs have worked in research designed to increase exports of conch and other living marine resources. This research included studies in the field biology and dynamics of reef fish. This area was recruited for by the Smithsonian Institution. Two explanations have been offered for lack of PC/Belize participation in marine fisheries. One suggests that the presence of other international organizations working in the sector precluded significant PC contributions. The second maintains that the Belize government has never placed a high priority on requesting volunteer support in fisheries. At present, there are indications PC/Belize is focusing more on freshwater fisheries development.

Brazil

Though PC has been in Brazil since 1962 it did not become involved with the Supervision of Fisheries Development (SUDEPE) until 1966. This Brazilian agency was created to stimulate the development of the fishing industry and provide assistance to small fishermen. PC first became active in the sector with five volunteer pilot projects designed to assist the small fishermen through development of fishing colonies followed by cooperatives.

Activities included medical help, outboard motor maintenance repair and boat building. This pilot group was followed by a group of 32 volunteers who were to work in the states of Guanabara and Rio. At the end of 1968 there were 27 volunteers working at 14 sites. The project continued to grow with 32 active PCV's placed in the states of Rio, Espirto Santo, and Minas Gerias. Seventeen others were projected to work in Pirapona and Minas Gerias in 1970. The fisheries cooperative project was joined by the Santa Catarina fisheries project in 1972. In that project PCV's were engaged to conduct research in shrimp culture, train counterparts and participate in fishery extension activities. In addition to these activities, individual placements were recruited for research in the area of marine pollution at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte. From the mid1970's Peace Corps activity appeared to go into decline as the 1976-77 country Management Plan no longer cited recruitment figures for the marine fishery sector.

Central American Fisheries Program

In response to widespread malnutrition, unemployment, and under-and irrational exploitation of living marine resources, the Central American Economic Council (CEC), composed of Panama, Honduras, E1 Salvador, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua, requested help from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. In 1966, the CEC created a Department of Fisheries (CCDP) composed of national fisheries department representatives from each country to act as the counterpart to FAO. The goal of this union was to improve methods of production, harvesting, processing and marketing, solve nutrition problems, and promote growth of commercial fishing industries. Recognition by FAO and the countries involved of Peace Corps' previous experience in Central America resulted in a formal request for Peace Corps participation. Separate requests were made by each national fishery agency for groups of PCV,s to work in some aspect of the host country's fishery sector. The project began operating in 1965 and was designed to terminate in mid-1971 when the CCDP would replace FAO. PC involvement ran from 1968 through the scheduled termination date. Two cycles of PCVs arrived in their respective countries during that time period. Whereas the PC staff and the first group of PCV's had little knowledge of what to expect, the second group was more selectively placed in sites with greater potential. The initial regional effort amounted to approximately 45 volunteers in six countries in all aspects of the fishing sector. There has been a great deal of documentation of the overall project and the concept of developing fisheries on a regional basis. The program was not considered a success and degenerated to a series of six separate projects. This has been attributed in varying degrees to: poor PC programming; failure to define FAO, PC, and host country ~ roles; ineffective training; inadequate incountry staff and inadequate support by host country agencies. Peace Corps continued its involvement in marine fisheries development after FAO's withdrawal only when so requested by the host country. Individual PC projects under the Central American Fisheries Program in Panama, Honduras, E1 Salvador, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua are discussed under those country headings.

Chile

Chile was one of the first countries where marine fishery development was recognized as a priority and actively pursued by Peace Corps. PC/Chile involvement was initiated by two volunteers placed between 1961 and 1966 with INACAP, a technical training institute. After this period the program grew and in 1968 an agreement was reached between the Ministry of Agriculture and PC/Chile to recruit 10 marine biologists to work with the agency in basic research and expansion of the fishery industry. The marine fishery development project continued to expand and by 1973 between 75 and 100 volunteers had served in the program. Despite the large numbers and longevity of the program, it has been defined as a limited success because of a failure to reach the poor due to such factors as lack of technical expertise, lack of in-country support, weak economic conditions, lack of staff expertise, and improper or lack of preparation before PCV arrival. All PC/Chile programs were cut radically or terminated during 1972-74. By 1974, individual placement volunteers with special skills, often recruited through the Smithsonian/Peace Corps program, again were being utilized by PC/Chile. By 1978 placement came full cycle as the placement of highly skilled individuals was supplanted by a greater effort to work in fishery extension. At present PC/Chile involvement in marine fisheries is being phased out due to several reasons including: volunteer frustrations expressed in recommendations not to be replaced long and record in marine fisheries, and the recognition of other areas of documented success which more easily justifies PC/Chile participation.

Colombia

The PC/Colombia program was so large and wide ranging one must assume it came in contact with marine fisheries at one time or another. Unfortunately, the only documentation encountered that supports this assumption outlines minor efforts with fishing communities in the large cooperative project in Colombia. These efforts were made in the mid-1960s to assist cooperatives along the Pacific Coast in the Departments of Choco and Valle. The only other documentation of PC/Colombia participation in the sector indicates that a few volunteers worked in salt water fish research in 1973 and another volunteer was involved in ornamental fish research on the north coast.

Costa Rica

Preceding the Central American Fisheries Program there appears to have been no involvement in marine fisheries by PC/Costa Rica. In 1969 PC/Costa Rica participated in a cooperative program with the objective of providing business expertise to a wide diversity of sectors including fishing cooperatives. In response to a request from Costa Rica six volunteers were placed as a result of the regional fisheries project. Two volunteers worked with the university while the rest worked in the field. Due to many of the problems cited common to the regional project as a whole, the program was not a success and was not continued. By the early 1970's emphasis was placed on freshwater fish culture and this continues to the present.

Dominican Republic

PC/Dominican Republic's first experience with marine fisheries was less than successful. In a program initiated in 1964, 11 trainees were recruited as fishermen to work with the local fishing communities. Of the 11, four left during training, two terminated prior to completion of service, and two transferred into freshwater fisheries projects. The various reasons offered for the project's demise were poor planning, careless selection, weak training and failure to involve the community. One favorable aspect of the project was the introduction of small outboard motors in the fishing community of Sanchez. After this initial effort in the sector, there appeared to be no other activity until the early 1970's when a small program in conjunction with IDECOOP was considered. In 1975, three PCVs were placed to organize a model pilot fishing cooperative to assist fishermen in processing, preserving and marketing their products. This program appears to be continuing to the present with five volunteers involved in coops.

Eastern Caribbean

The only documentation of placement in marine fisheries was a boat builder recruited for Antigua in 1976.

Ecuador

The only reported involvement of PC/Ecuador in marine fisheries was the placement of one volunteer with the national fisheries agency in 1974. At that time it was suggested Peace Corps could provide technical assistance in commercial fishing techniques. There is no evidence that this suggestion was acted on at any level of significance.

El Salvador

Though PC has been involved in E1 Salvador since 1962 it was not until seven volunteers arrived to work with the Ministry of Economy in connection with the regional fisheries project that PC/ET Salvador became involved in marine fisheries. The primary tasks of three PCVs were to work with a newlyformed fish cooperative and demonstrate new fishing gear. This was considered a pilot fish coop and the cooperative/coop sharing programs. Honduras' response to the regional fisheries program was to request 10 volunteers to participate in a coop/fisheries development project situated at five sites. The requests were filled and volunteers placed and the project generally was considered a successful one. This was attributed to the placement of qualified volunteers, strong staff capabilities and a supportive host country agency. One project that continued from this initial effort was the north coast fishing project with five PCVs working in it from 1970 to 1973. The overall objectives were to improve fishing techniques and raise food production. Programs of this type continued with the Department of Renewable Resources in Honduras through the 1970's but appear to have been replaced by freshwater fishery projects in 19781979.

Jamaica

PC/Jamaica's only involvement in marine fisheries took place in the

middle to late 1960's. The primary purpose of placement of the five to six volunteers in the cooperatives program was to introduce the use of fiberglass boats and motors designed to replace the traditional cottonwood canoes. This, it was hoped, would allow the fishermen to fish beyond the coral reefs. This project continued into 1968 with the participation of seven volunteers. There were no further evaluations to determine the fate of the project though PC/Jamaica activity ln cooperatives was documented into the early 1970s. At present PC/Jamaica activity appears to be focused on inland fish pond culture.

Nicaragua

Marine fisheries has never been a priority in Nicaragua with PC effort directed to the artisinal fisherman of Lake Nicaragua. The six volunteers trained for the Central American Fisheries Program arrived to find the in-country fisheries division abolished. They were reassigned to INFONAC (Department of Fisheries) but found it more oriented to the lake research project. There appears to be no future for PC involvement in marine fisheries in Nicaragua.

Panama

Peace Corps was involved in fishing cooperatives in Panama as early as 1966. The level of involvement averaged three to five volunteers until the start of the Central American Fisheries Program. Ten PCVs were assigned to Panama including five generalists, a fishing technician, a biologist, a market analyst, and a food processor. The program was considered the most successful in the six countries. This success was attributed to clear objectives, adequate support, qualified volunteers, and a reasonably developed fishing industry. Two major projects consisted of working in the Chorrillo fishing cooperatives and working in general artisan fishing development at five sites in Panama. The programs were cancelled with the termination of Peace Corps/Panama in the early 1970s.

Peru

Though Peace Corps first entered Peru in 1962 it was not until 1965 that PC/Peru embarked on a program of cooperative assistance. Between 1965 and 1973 140 volunteers worked in the cooperatives project. The emphasis was on general rural and urban cooperative development and documentation of specific fishery cooperative efforts was found. Negotiations were in progress with the Ministry of Fisheries for PC/ Peru participation in marine fisheries when all PC activities were terminated by the Ministry of Foreign Relations. Direct PC/Peru activity in fisheries prior to termination appeared to be limited to a few freshwater hatchery

Source: Weil, Thomas E. et.al. 1969. Area Handbook for Chile. Foreign Area Studies, The American University, Washington, D.C.

Chile is a long, thin country that stretches 2,650 miles from its northern borders with Bolivia and Peru to the southern tip of South America along the Pacific Ocean. Only 110 miles wide on the average, Chile encompasses landscapes and climates that vary from desert where no rainfall has ever been recorded, to tundra inhabited only by penguins. Santiago, the capital city founded by the Spanish in 1541, is located in Chile's central valley. A Spanish colony for three centuries, Chile fought for her independence along with her neighbors, and by 1823 was a free, united country.

Chile is one of the most sophisticated countries in South America, with a literacy rate of over 90% and a labor force that contains large numbers of highlytrained professionals. Mining of copper, iron, and nitrates accounts for more than 80% of Chile's export earnings, while agriculture accounts for only 10%. Traditionally, agriculture in Chile consisted of a small number of very large farms. Eighty percent of the viable land was taken up by only 7% of the country's farms. Since 1972, land reform has been breaking up large farms into smaller parcels worked by farm families. However, due to a lack of investment and inadequate mechanization, these small farms do not produce as much as the larger farms did previously. As a result, Chile imports much of its food.

Although very developed in some ways, today Chile still has 2 to 3 million people who live in extreme poverty. Services for the poor recently have been reduced or eliminated in an effort to decrease inflation, and as result, malnutrition, unemployment and poverty-related diseases are on the rise. Recognizing these problems, Chile began requesting Peace Corps volunteers to work in agriculture programs in 1962. Volunteers first began working with fishermen in 1964.

Fisheries in Chile: An Overwiew

Chile had a very highly developed commercial fishing industry, and fishing for such species as tuna, mackerel, flounder, swordfish, bluefish, and king crab was important to the economy in the 1960's. One of Chile's major exports was the anchovy, or anchoveta, which was ground up and sold as fish meal and used in animal feed. High anchovy yields were attributed to the presence of cold, nutrient-rich waters along the shore. These productive waters, a result of coastal upwelling, were driven by prevailing southerly winds along the Chilean and Peruvian coastline. The anchovy catch in Chile, however, was unpredictable due to a phenomenon called "E1 Nino." This phenomenon was created by a change in wind direction to a northerly wind which resulted in displacement of the colder waters by warmer, nutrient poor water. Anchovy populations were reduced either by migration to the preferred colder waters or by direct kill. Chile's commercial species were subject to unpredictable changes such as El Nino, and as a result, fishermen would overfish traditional grounds when fish were available.

Most of Chile's fishing, however, was still done by small fishermen working just off the coast in small boats up to 30 feet in length. The fishermen were encouraged to belong to the fishing cooperatives, and in 1966 Chile had 38 legally-operating cooperatives along the coast. Each cooperative had from 10 to 30 boats, called faluchos, equipped with either marine diesel motors or sails. Fishermen who were members of cooperatives handed over their catch to the cooperative, which sold the fish in the public market or directly to a client at the dock. The cooperative thus effectively eliminated the middleman,

and ensured a better profit to the fishermen. Most fishermen also needed help in fishing techniques and methods, and the cooperatives needed assistance in accounting and other basic management skills. Commercial fishermen needed more information on the biology of important fish species and other marine resources. Two volunteers worked with fishing cooperatives from 1964 to 1966, and as a result of their successes, Chile requested its first group of marine fisheries volunteers from the Peace Corps in 1966.

Peace Corps Involvement with Chilean Fisheries

The first group of marine fisheries volunteers for Chile was recruited by Peace Corps late in 1966. This group of 19 volunteers was trained at the University of New Mexico and at Humboldt State College in California, where they received intensive training in fisheries and in the operation of Chilean fishing cooperatives. The volunteers had little background or experience in fishing, although several had degrees in accounting or business. The volunteers were requested by the Instituto de Desarrollo Agropecuario (INDAP), the country's agricultural development agency, although they were to be assigned to individual cooperatives and were responsible to the cooperatives rather than to INDAP.

The Peace Corps contracted with Humboldt State College to provide technical services to these volunteers once they were in the field. This included providing a technical consultant stationed in Chile. This consultant was a returned Peace Corps volunteer who had experience in rural areas and could communicate easily with Chilean government officials. He worked as a technical Peace Corps staff person for the entire two-year period that this group was incountry.

Prior to each volunteer's arrival at their sites, INDAP sent a letter to each cooperative explaining who the volunteer was, what he was expected to do, and what the Peace Corps objectives were. The Peace Corps also informed cooperatives of the volunteers' arrival through site visits by the Humboldt State representative. Although nearly every cooperative was expecting a volunteer, their reception varied greatly. Some volunteers were met by their cooperative leaders, introduced to all coop members, and given a place to stay, while others had to go find the coop representative by themselves. In general, volunteers were wellreceived and cooperative members looked forward to working with them.

Each volunteer was given a letter of introduction from INDAP's Central Office in Santiago to their field representatives in the area of each cooperative. There was some confusion among the volunteers as to which division of INDAP they were supposed to work with. The original Peace Corps agreement had been with INDAP's Subdivision de Asistencia Cooperativa, which provided cooperative assistance to both agricultural and fishing cooperatives. Another section, the Division de Asistencia Tecnica y Crediticia, provided financial and technical aid to cooperative members. The Subdivision only had two full-time and two part time field representatives, while the Division had between eight and twelve field representatives with whom volunteers had more contact. Both sections felt they should be the only ones working with volunteers. However, since the Subdivision had requested the volunteers, they were responsible to that agency.

Another problem that surfaced resulted from the fact that INDAP only recently had been given responsibility for fishing cooperatives. As a result, no formal plan existed for the development of fishing cooperatives or for utilization of the volunteers. Other agencies in Chile were working with fishing communities as well, such as the Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), the Institute for Fisheries Development.

Volunteers often worked with several fisheries agencies and found themselves torn between them.

In each of their cooperatives, volunteers gained acceptance at first simply by going fishing with cooperative members. Most volunteers were able to gain the confidence of coop members and found it easy to move into discussions about the coop, participate in coop meetings, and make suggestions to solve some of their problems. Volunteers were able to establish new cooperative business filing systems, teach new fishing skills, train cooperative members in accounting and basic management skills, and create a greater sense of unity among members. Volunteers developed a simple manual on accounting, slide shows and other educational aids for fishermen.

Most volunteers felt that their success depended greatly upon their ability to communicate in Spanish. Those who were fluent had less difficulty working with cooperatives than those who had trouble speaking. During the two-year tour, four volunteers left the country, and three changed their job sites. Volunteers with technical backgrounds felt that people with community development training were needed to work on fishing communities as a whole, while volunteers with community development training believed more technical volunteers were needed. However, for the most part all of these volunteers were considered to be successful, and INDAP anticipated using more volunteers in fishing cooperatives. There is some evidence that over 60 volunteers participated in INDAP's cooperative program during a seven year period, but little information is available to describe the program or its results.

The Second Group Volunteers

A second group of marine fisheries volunteers was requested in 1968 by the Institute for Fisheries Development (IFOP) to act as samplers gathering data in seaports on the catch of commercial and artisanal fishermen. Peace Corps recruited 16 volunteers for IFOP in 1969. This group of volunteers was trained at the University of Washington in fish marketing, fish processing, statistical techniques used in Chile, classification of Chilean fishes, use of fish gear in commercial fisheries, fish management, and the microbiology of fish spoilage. When this program was planned, Peace Corps didn't know if marine biologists with the necessary skills would be available, so their Job descriptions were very vague. At the end of recruiting, however, it was clear that the volunteers were highly skilled, so the job descriptions were rewritten for more technical positions within IFOP. These volunteers were switched from mere data-gathering to active research. However, this switch did not occur until two months of training already had taken place training which was no longer relevant to the jobs the volunteers would have.

When these volunteers arrived in September of 1969, they were assigned to the Natural Resources Division of IFOP. This division consisted of four sections biology, stock assessment and assistance, shellfish, and distribution and abundance. Within each section, volunteers were treated as employees of IFOP, responsible to the Chilean in charge. Volunteers worked with Chilean scientists on projects such as research on the life history and abundance of commercially important mollusks, crustacea and fish; population dynamics of important commercial fish species; and special research related to the degrees of each volunteer. Volunteers also worked on the development of a computer program to inprovo the analysis of catch statistics for IFOP.

This project had several problems, however, because it was not well defined from the beginning. Volunteers often found themselves assigned to projects that did not exist, or which had no funding for equipment. Local supervisors were not consulted about volunteers nor even told of the volunteers' arrival. Four volunteers assigned to IFOP moved to universities where they got support to do research on the use of algae for fertilizer, and the biology and life history of halce, a common Chilean fish. Volunteers also had trouble working with Chilean scientists because of differing attitudes towards research. The volunteers were considered by the Chileans to be cold, unemotional people, an attribute that is not favorable in Chilean eyes, while the volunteers found Chilean scientists to have a different educational focus and a lack of interest in their research. Thus there was animosity between volunteers and their counterparts. This was exacerbated by the fact that many volunteers felt they were taking jobs away from qualified Chilean professionals.

Support from Peace Corps also appeared inadequate. The only Peace Corps staff person with an interest in fisheries projects, the Humboldt State College representative, left the country one month after this group of volunteers arrived, and there was no one to take his place. Volunteers felt that Peace Corps was responsible for their inappropriate training, their lack of jobs and support from IFOP, and felt that Peace Corps had given them misleading information about the status of research in Chile. In general, these volunteers were dissatisfied, but even so were able to contribute to the scientific development of Chilean fisheries. Apparently IFOP felt volunteers had made valuable contributions because they requested six more volunteers to work in the Technology Division in 1970.

The Third Group of Volunteers

In 1970 IFOP became more interested in the use of fish and fish products to provide the necessary protein in people's diets. They requested volunteers to work in nutrition, food science, microbiology, and chemical engineering. Their objectives were to increase the utilization of products of the fishing industry, promote export of fish products, create new sources of employment, and train Chileans in food science and technology, nutrition, and microbiology of foods. The volunteers were to work as part of teams doing research in IFOP laboratories. These teams were to achieve the IFOP objectives by improving existing fish products, methods and techniques of fish processing; developing new products and increasing quality and variety of food produced in Chile; lowering production costs and initiating quality control; and promoting the fish products industry. It is not clear if these volunteers were recruited and sent to Chile. However, there are detailed job descriptions available that indicate the positions were given much thought. Presumably volunteers with these skills were found and placed in these fields

Volunteers with Special Skills

Starting with the highly-skilled marine biologists recruited for IFOP in 1969, Chile began requesting volunteers with special skills for assignment in a variety of research and fisheries development programs. By 1974, Peace Corps was providing individual placement volunteers who had technical backgrounds for work in the development of regional seafood marketing cooperatives, fisheries education, and marine ecology research. Most of these volunteers had no technical training since they were recruited for specialized positions, but all received language and some crosscultural training prior to their placement. For example, one volunteer who arrived in 1974 had a degree in business administration. He was assigned to a cooperative which had been taken over by the Government of Chile because of its poor management. The cooperative was owned by one family, and they were exploiting the cooperative members to make a profit for themselves. The volunteer worked with the coop to improve seafood distribution and general coop administration. After one year, he transferred to a university to teach fishery marketing. His support came from Peace Corps and the university, but he clearly was responsible for most of his own supervision. This volunteer developed fisheries newsletters for cooperatives and the commercial fishing industry, and produced a radio program on Chile's fishery resources. He was considered a successful volunteer although his original job was not well defined and he found his job after the first did not work out.

Another volunteer who arrived during this same period had a degree in marine biology and was requested to serve as a professor at the Catholic University in Valparaiso. This volunteer taught courses in aquaculture and ecological sampling techniques, and did some research. He had a counterpart who left three months after he arrived to do graduate work in France. The only support he received was from the university, but due to political troubles even that was often curtailed. This volunteer felt that he was replacing a qualified Chilean professional, and recommended that Peace Corps not place any more volunteers at the university.

In 1975, the first Smithsonian/ Peace Corps volunteers arrived in Chile. One volunteer, a marine biologist with six years of experience, went to the University of Chile, where he taught ecology, marine biology, ecological sampling techniques, statistics, and tidal organisms identification and ecology. This volunteer also collected data on a local clam, the taca. During the second year at the university he worked on the taca exclusively, investigating spawning, raising, and culturing of the clam. He was supported in these activities by the Smithsonian coordinator and by the Peace Corps, especially by a Chilean staff member in Santiago who kept interest in fisheries programs alive. He also received some support from the university, and had good, hardworking counterparts.

Another Smithsonian volunteer with a degree in oceanography worked jointly for the the University of the North and Catholic University. For the University of the North the volunteer initiated studies in the development of a locally-produced antifoulant paint. This project was too ambitious an undertaking and was not adequately supported by the university. For the Catholic University the volunteer obtained information for developing a resource management plan for a local shellfish, the loco. This volunteer had a couterpart and received some equipment from the university, as well as support from a private institution, the Chile Foundation. This project was considered a success due to the greater resources available through the Catholic University. However, at this volunteer's recommendation, no more volunteers were sent to work at the university. Like volunteers before him, he felt that he was replacing qualified Chilean professionals.

In 1976, two more volunteers arrived in Chile, one to work on an oil spill in Punta Arenas, and another to work with a Catholic University in southern Chile. The volunteer who worked on the oil spill received support from the Patagonian Institute and the Shell Oil Company, and published two papers in the Institute's Journal on the oil spill and its effects. Although the Institute requested more volunteers after this volunteer completed his tour of duty, Peace Corps decided not to recruit any more.

The volunteer assigned to the Catholic University in southern Chile had degrees in biology and marine science, and had been in the US Navy. He taught courses in general ecology, and conducted laboratory sessions. He worked with Chileans to design several courses and lab exercises. He also did research on using kelp for agricultural purposes, the ecology of kelp beds, and a review of artisan fishing methods, equipment, and species of fish caught. This volunteer did not receive much support from the University or Peace Corps; however, he felt that he was successful in teaching and that he left behind several good courses for future Chilean students.

Four more Smithsonian volunteers were recruited for Chile in 1977. These volunteers were supposed to work in fisheries extension with cooperatives in small coastal villages, but each ended up doing research and education of cooperative members. One volunteer was supposed to help a cooperative improve their fishing techniques, but he discovered that they were already overfishing the area, and needed more capital investment in the coop instead. Later on he worked for a university and wrote a booklet on the fish species in the area, including the common local name, scientific name, English equivalent, and classification. The booklet was written for the use of coops and industry, and was published by the university. This volunteer and the others in the group felt that they were taking jobs away from qualified professionals, and that Peace Corps expected them to work as community developers rather than, or in addition to, their primary jobs as fisheries biologists. Few had the training or interest to do so as they considered themselves scientists first and extensionists second. However, by 1979 the Peace Corps began to focus its activities on meeting basic human needs, and Chile again requested volunteers to work in fishing villages.

Peace Corps' New Fisheries Program

In response to a request from Chile's new fishery agency, the Servicio Nacional de Pesca (SNP), the Peace Corps recruited 17 volunteers to work in poor fishing villages, called caletas. These volunteers were trained in community development theory and practice as well as fishing gear, methods, and business skills. Both the Peace Corps and the SNP hope that this program will eliminate some of the problems that volunteers and Chileans had with previous Peace Corps activities. For example, one common complaint was that volunteers felt they were just replacing qualified professionals. Very few Chileans with higher education are willing to live and work in caletas, which are among the poorest sectors of Chlle; thus volunteers are providing technical help where no other help would be available. Another problem that highly-skilled volunteers had in earlier programs was the lack of support for their research studies.

Peace Corps is trying to eliminate this problem by recruiting volunteers who are more interested in personal development than professional advancement. All of these factors are being considered by Peace Corps in determining the future of fisheries activities in Chile.

Evaluation of the Project

The Peace Corps marine fisheries projects in Chile have been evaluated formally three times, in 1968, 1970, and 1979. Each evaluation has had a different attitude towards the type of work in which Peace Corps was involved, primarily because during those years the philosophy of Peace Corps changed greatly. In the 1968 evaluation, individual volunteers were evaluated for their successes in fishing cooperatives and the general concensus was that volunteers had been successful in helping cooperative members, and teaching new fishing skills. These volunteers were supported both by Peace Corps and by their host country agency, INDAP. However, this evaluation stated that cooperatives in Chile have problems that volunteers cannot help with, and that the future of Peace Corps programs in fishing cooperatives does not look promising.

The 1970 evaluation, on the other hand, dealt with the problems that specialist volunteers had in Chile. The evaluation stated that this program of highly-trained volunteers seemed to be repeating the same mistakes made in other specialist Peace Corps programs. These mistakes included a lack of communication concerning their program with lower levels of host country agency personnel, and the resulting lack of financial and technical support; inappropriate training by Peace corps and selection of volunteers unable or unwilling to work in unstructured, ambiguous situations; a lack of good advance information about the nature of each volunteer's job that hindered their self preparation; a lack of good crosscultural training to help American scientists understand the attitudes towards research of their Chilean counterparts. The evaluator sums the program up by stating that these volunteers were "... highly specialized scientists and their talent is useless when locked into an unproductive job situation."* The volunteers in this program were recruited to do good, sound, scientific research and they were frustrated by the situations in which they found themselves. Volunteers also felt that Peace Corps should do more investigating of assignments before recruiting volunteers to avoid such situations in the future.

By 1979, Peace Corps had begun to focus on community development rather than scientific research, and the evaluation done that year reflects this. In this evaluation volunteers in fisheries extension and fisheries development were evaluated as to their effectiveness in reaching the poor. The evaluation stated that volunteers placed in caletas were unprepared and unwilling to live and work in caletas full-time, and that they had not received any community development training. It was as a result of this evaluation, based on interviews held early in the year, that a new program began in July that focused on community development programs rather than fisheries development. This 1979 evaluation also stated that several projects undertaken by volunteers had been tried in the 1960's with little success, but that neither volunteers nor staff seemed aware of previous failures. The evaluation concludes with recommendations that Peace Corps should phase out all fisheries volunteers who were not living directly in caletas and that fisheries volunteers should be placed with nongovernmental organizations capable

of giving them the necessary support; that volunteers should be trained in community development; and that studies should be done on certain cooperatives which seem to be exploiting both cooperative members and volunteers to see if Peace Corps should continue to be involved. All of these recommendations seem to have been followed in the development of the fisheries extension program that began in July 1979. It appears that Peace Corps will reexamine its involvement in fisheries in Chile when this program is completed and at that time decide wheter to continue in this field.

Successes and Failures

Marine fisheries projects in Chile have been influenced by several factors. When these factors were present, the project succeeded; when they were absent or in short supply, projects did not do as well. These factors include the following:

• The support of host country agencies that requested volunteers had a major impact on individual projects. For example, in the cooperatives program with INDAP, cooperatives were informed of the volunteers) arrival and welcomed them. In the program with IFOP, local supervisors were neither consulted on the need for volunteers, nor informed of their arrival. Volunteers working with universities found that support varied, but in all of these projects volunteers questioned the need for highly-skilled specialists. They felt resentment from .counterparts when they took a research job that a trained Chilean could do.

• Peace Corps support varied with the projects as well. The cooperatives project had technical and field support from the representative of Humboldt State College, while the IFOP group had no such support. Volunteers placed individually had little support from Peace Corps, primarily, they felt, because Peace Corps had no technical people on the staff who could understand their problems and support needs.

• Volunteers who worked with local fishermen were accepted based upon their technical skills and their ability to communicate in Spanish, and after initial trial periods, most volunteers felt they were trusted by their cooperative members. Volunteers who worked in more skilled positions were uncomfortable because they felt they were taking jobs away from trained and qualified Chilean professionals. Scientist volunteers were frustrated also by the difference in attitude towards research of the Chilean scientists.

• Volunteers with training in marine fisheries were not given additional training that would enable them to operate more effectively in their communities, while those with community development skills felt that more technically skilled volunteers were needed. Peace Corps itself changed radically over the years, and much of its original expertise in community development was lost. Even when Peace Corps wanted to work such theories into training, volunteers did not feel it was adequate for their needs.

In all of these projects there is an undercurrent which points out a problem that Peace Corps in Chile has had since the beginning of its involvement in marine fisheries. Chile is a fairly developed country with a large commercial fishing industry, and it places priority on scientific research to improve the commercial catch. Historically there has been little interest in artisanal fishermen in Chile. Peace Corps, however, began its projects in Chile by focusing on small coastal fishermen. As projects progressed, Chile asked for more technically-skilled volunteers and Peace Corps tried to comply. Volunteers recruited for these new technical positions had more problems with support and had different expectations of their Peace Crops experience than less technical volunteers; they were frustrated and recommended that Peace Corps not place volunteers in such positions. As a result, Peace Carps has found itself out of tune with both volunteer and host country demands. Today Peace Corps feels that the best approach is working directly with people in their villages, but such assistance will have to be approved by the government. As a result, the future of Peace Corps' involvement in marine fisheries in Chile is uncertain at best.

Most of the background information used in developing the material presented in the case studies was found in Peace Corps files, including those of the ()office of Programming and Training Coordination, country desk officers, and the ACTION Library. Some materials were received from returned Peace Corps volunteers involved in those projects studied as well. Most of the statements male in evaluating success and failure of Peace Corps marine fisheries projects came from Peace Corps evaluations; however, some statements made are based upon the perceptions of returned volunteers themselves, especially when no formal evaluations were ever made. Perceptions change over time, and most volunteers contacted agreed that they were perhaps remembering only the very good or very bad aspects of their tours. Thus these case studies should not be considered as the final verdict in any case, but as the perceptions of evaluators, programmers, trainers, staff, and volunteers involved in marine fisheries projects. There were also gaps in the data that could not be filled.

Data from returned volunteers was gathered through telephone conversations and letters. Volunteers were asked questions to start their thinking about projects, some of which occurred 18 years ago. Others merely talked about projects, giving their own views with little prompting from the researchers. A sample questionnaire used for this purpose follows.

Questions for Marine Fisheries RPCVs

1. flow many volunteers were in your project? At the beginning? At the end of two years?

2. What pre-Peace Corps education, training and experience in marine fisheries did you have?

3. What training did you have prior to placement in-country?

4. What was your primary job as a volunteer? Your secondary job?

5. Did your project have clearly defined objectives? Did you know what these were?

6. What were the objectives of the project? Were PC objectives the same as those of the host country?

7. Was there support for the project? From PC? From the host country government? What kind of support:

a. counterparts

b. place to work

c. money

d. transportation

e. housing

f. equipment

g. supervision and direction

8. If not working for the government, who provided support and guidance for your project?

9. Where did you live? Work? Within what radius of your living quarters/work place did you travel •or work purposes? [low far did you travel from your living quarters to your place of work? Did your living arrangement influence your job performance?

10. Did you complete your project? Why did you and other volunteers in your program leave the project:

a. normal termination

b. medical reasons

c. personal reasons

d. project deficiencies

e. other problems

11. Did you perceive problems during the course of the project? If so, did you make recommendations to the Peace Corps? To the host country government?

12. Were such recommendations acted upon? Did such actions improve the situation? Why or why not?

13. Did you have enough to do? Was your job dependent upon outside support?

14. In your opinion, did the project fulfill original objectives of PC? Of the host country government? Why or why not? How?

15. If not, what were the problems?

a. no need for project as defined

b. personal problems

c. medical problems

d. unavoidable "chance" problems (i.e.. political)

e. lack of support - money, equipment, trained counterparts

f. lack of receptivity on part of target audience (fishermen, farmers, etc.)

g. inability of volunteer to communicate - language, cross-cultural issues, technically unqualified, personality problems

h. other problems

16. What was your group's feelings about continuing the project in your country? In another country? What is your feeling about this?

17. Do you consider the project successful? What do you mean by successful? If not, under what circumstances could the project have been successful?

18. Is the project still going on? If not, why do you think it stopped?

19. Any further comments on training, abilities of volunteers to do the job, support from PC, host country, private donor organizations, other volunteers, and evaluations of PC projects.

20. Can you suggest other people in your program who should be contacted for information?

Africa

Asia and the Pacific

Latin America and the Caribbean